Pakistan is one of the most climate-vulnerable countries in the world, ranking as the top nation most affected by climate change according to the Global Climate Risk Index 2025.

Due to its geographic location, Pakistan has experienced increasingly frequent and severe climate change-induced extreme weather events, such as devastating floods, prolonged heatwaves and persistent droughts. This has resulted in crippling economic damage, heavy loss of life and ensuing humanitarian crises of various natures, which are exacerbated in impact due to poor planning and lack of systems capable of dealing with the needs of the hour.

Climate-resilient infrastructure and services are crucial to coping with these extreme weather events and maintaining access to essential resources. This requires integrating climate considerations into the planning, construction and upkeep of infrastructure, along with equitable access to these services, particularly for underserved communities. Both at the federal and local level, the Government of Pakistan (GoP) must adopt and implement climate-resilient urban planning strategies that reinforce existing infrastructure and integrate sustainable development principles.

Given the complexities associated with climate change, it is helpful to deconstruct some of the elements involved. Of the many climate-related hazards Pakistan currently faces regarding the infrastructure of its cities, the top three in contention (without ranking order) are heat, flooding and air quality. All three are dangerous and result in death and devastation instantly or over a prolonged period of time for all forms of life. All three factors have corresponding urban infrastructure components that can be considered in terms of reciprocal impact, and most of these can be targeted together in stratified groups that have similar causes or compounding ramifications. It is necessary to understand that climate-resilient infrastructure involves tangible changes to the systems that manage the built environment as well as the implementation of forward-thinking policies and plans.

Heat and Air Quality

2024 witnessed global temperatures rise more than 1.5°C above the pre-industrial level for the first time, surpassing the aim of the Paris Agreement to contain temperatures under this figure. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) Sixth Assessment Report, the danger is that the increase in global temperature will go up to 3.1°C if measures are not taken. Unfortunately, Pakistan’s climate is warming much faster than the global average, with a potential rise of 1.3 to 4.9°C by the end of the 21st century. Sindh now frequently witnesses temperatures as high as 50°C and Balochistan has already experienced a record-breaking 53.7°C. Collectively, such events have resulted in the death of thousands of people

The long-term and most effective solution for global warming is a concerted focus on the reduction of carbon emissions across the world. While the IPCC’s warning is dire, it still optimistically states that extreme warming can gradually be reduced by achieving and sustaining net negative global CO2 emissions. This is possible if all countries can collectively implement a cut of 42% on yearly greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by 2030 and reach 57% by 2035 if there is to be any hope of preventing warming beyond the agreed (and already realised) 1.5°C. According to the GoP’s official data, Pakistan’s contribution to global GHG emissions is less than one percent, with the majority of these contributions rooted in its energy sector, followed closely by agriculture and then its industry sector. The GoP submitted a revised Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2021, presenting a commitment to reduce 50% of its projected emissions by 2030, and a National Adaptation Plan in 2023 that lists several policy measures to adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate change in Pakistan. Most of the suggestions are thoughtful and excellent, but as always, implementation appears to be the greatest challenge.

In fact, certain developments that are being implemented across Pakistan in terms of key investment in urban infrastructure appear totally counterintuitive to both the NDC and the objectives of combating extreme heat. For example, 2024 witnessed a 2.5 year record high for private vehicles sold in Pakistan and continued large-scale investments for road infrastructure that encourages the use of private transport. One of the most effective strategies to reduce CO2 emissions and mitigate the urban heat island (UHI) effect on a large urban scale is a coordinated effort to decrease car usage and transition mobility infrastructure to greener, more sustainable alternatives. This can be achieved by a commitment to making public transport the mobility of choice for millions and creating an infrastructure that encourages bicycling and walking.

Although there may be a general agreement in liberal greenwashed spaces to push for electric vehicles (EVs) through incentives such as tax breaks and subsidies to reduce vehicular emissions, what must be kept in mind is that EVs follow the same car dependent model (and pose the added question of disposing of batteries that are difficult to recycle and can leak into the soil and groundwater, posing serious environmental hazards), which means no change in the road infrastructure or congestion issues. In this context, public transport subsidies are the most important factor in improving environmental sustainability and climate resilience in urban areas.

Public transport systems (buses and metros) offer a far more efficient and scalable solution to reducing emissions and combating urban heat. By moving large numbers of people in a single vehicle, public transport significantly lowers the per capita carbon footprint compared to private cars, even EVs. This reduction in emissions directly contributes to improved air quality. Cleaner air not only mitigates climate change but also reduces the incidence of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, enhancing public health.

Public transport also minimises the need for expansive road networks, freeing up land for green spaces that combat UHI. Efficient public transport reduces traffic congestion, lowering heat and emissions from idling vehicles. Implementing policies for school bus programmes would see similar positive results. From a climate resilience perspective, public transport can be designed to withstand extreme weather, such as flooding and ensure reliable services during crises. Additionally, public transport promotes social equity by providing affordable mobility for all, especially low-income communities disproportionately affected by climate change.

Additionally, studies show that in car-dependent cities, most car trips cover less than 10 kilometres - a wasteful distance for fuel usage, but an easy distance to transition to eco-friendly alternatives. When public transport, walking or cycling are feasible options, these modes are generally preferred. First miles, last miles and connectivity between transit points are essential features of making public transport a viable option. Improving bus stops with shade and lighting, regulating bus routes to cover more ground and creating systems for park and rides (including bicycle parking) help make public transport the public’s choice.

Moreover, efforts to increase walkability and cyclability include planting trees and cooling infrastructure across pathways to encourage users. This means more shade from above and below and the increase of green belts. This is especially practical for pedestrian pathways, which can also be landscaped with indigenous fauna. Water bodies of varying scale can also be added along the hottest areas in the city to help decrease temperatures, along with low-cost urban forests that contribute to cooling and cleaning air (as opposed to manicured monoculture grass parks that are a drain on water resources and contribute nothing to the environment or towards cooling it).

Furthermore, redesigning cities to be walkable counters the negative trend of urban sprawl, which promotes car dependency, increases energy use and harms green infrastructure. Walkable cities focus on mixed-use development, integrating residential, commercial and recreational spaces to shorten commutes and reduce emissions. This approach also encourages walking and cycling, promoting healthier lifestyles while preserving green spaces and improving air quality. By prioritising compact, walkable urban designs, Pakistan can create sustainable, inclusive and climate-resilient cities that lower carbon footprints and conserve energy.

However, if investment and development are focused on the creation of signal-free corridors and flyovers that inhibit pedestrian movement and encourage private car usage, this will further expose Pakistan to the dangers of continued emissions, extreme heat and the worst air quality in the world. Islamabad now faces increasing temperatures and poor air quality, despite being a much greener and cooler city compared to most others in the country. The Capital Development Authority (CDA) has chosen to widen roads and increase signal-free corridors and motorways that only allow high-speed vehicles. Building for cars will always result in the use of more cars and the consequences that come with the decision, such as the 106% increase in private vehicle ownership seen in Islamabad. Building for climate resilience will bear similar results, but on the positive end of the spectrum.

To address rising temperatures and frequent heatwaves, reinforced cooling infrastructure must be prioritised. Building codes should mandate energy-efficient designs, such as reflective roofing and improved insulation, to reduce indoor heat and energy use. Cities need more cooling centres that are fully equipped to handle extreme heat and strategically located to assist vulnerable populations, as current efforts are insufficient. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), which focuses on rescue rather than prevention, established 294 heat stabilisation camps in Sindh during the 2024 heatwaves. At a closer look, many of these camps clearly lack adequate equipment and preparation, limiting their effectiveness.

To improve, cooling centres must be better resourced with medical supplies, trained staff and reliable power sources like solar energy. The NDMA should shift toward long-term prevention and adaptation, integrating climate-resilient infrastructure and early warning systems. These steps are essential to protect citizens and build a more resilient urban future.

Flooding, Storms and Landsliding

High heat levels translate into extreme rain as warmer air holds more moisture and hotter seas result in increased evaporation. Pakistan is also known as the ‘third pole’ due to its massive concentration of glaciers that store more frozen water than anywhere else outside the Arctic and Antarctic circles. These glaciers are melting at an alarming rate due to rising temperatures, contributing to increased water flow in rivers and heightened flood risks. Pakistan’s 2022 floods were a stark reminder of this vulnerability; they submerged one-third of the country and displaced over 33 million people. Moreover, a growing proportion of the most intense tropical cyclones are reaching Category 3 or higher (5 is the most severe), exhibiting stronger maximum wind speeds, increased rainfall and significantly greater destructive power. Such events are expected to become more ferocious in intensity and frequent in activity as climate change intensifies.

To combat flooding, Pakistan must prioritise climate-resilient urban planning that incorporates nature-based solutions and modern engineering. For instance, restoring wetlands and mangroves can act as natural buffers against floods, absorbing excess water and reducing the speed of floodwaters. This would mean permanently stopping the land reclamation practices that are endangering mangrove ecosystems, which are the country’s strongest defence system in the south. The entirety of DHA Phase 8 in Karachi is constructed on reclaimed land, which does not feature on any master plan ever made for the city – and such development practices that deal in rapid urbanisation without forethought and fair public consultation processes must be curbed. Furthermore, the construction of settlements and highways that endanger natural river drainage patterns (such as the Malir Expressway in Karachi and the RUDA in Punjab) must be reconsidered and reconfigured to avoid endangering essential ecosystems that sustain life.

Additionally, cities must invest in robust drainage systems capable of handling extreme rainfall without the mass displacement of vulnerable residents. For example, encroachment is generally considered Karachi’s largest stormwater drain issue, but the choking of these nullahs is also equally a result of corrupt waste management practices at the provincial level and incompetence at the municipal level. The Sindh Solid Waste Management Board (SSWMB) directs the sewage of the city into large nullahs like the Gujjar Nullah, and the Karachi Municipal Corporation (KMC) is incapable of facilitating the city’s solid waste disposal due to the SSWMB being in political and financial control. As a result, the solid and sewage waste of the majority of Karachi is more or less deposited in the open stormwater drains, which inevitably choke, especially during monsoon seasons. Widening these channels to increase capacity is a lot more difficult in the long run than implementing systems to keep them clean. The practical choice is regular maintenance, appropriate waste disposal, treatment systems for sewage and solid waste and the construction of decentralised rainwater harvesting systems. A strong and financially empowered local government is essential for climate resilience on the urban level.

Likewise, modern environmental planning praxis offers traditional options to cities, such as the ‘sponge city’ model developed by Professor Kongjian Yu, which focuses on creating urban areas that can work with nature to absorb, store and reuse rainwater. This includes integrating green infrastructure, permeable surfaces and water storage systems into city design. Adding layers of permeability can help tremendously; for example, replacing traditional concrete and asphalt with permeable materials that allow water to seep through the ground, reducing surface runoff. This can be applied to sidewalks, parking lots, and low-traffic roads.

Moreover, heavy rainfalls inundate low-lying areas, resulting in power cuts that affect essential services. Cellular and internet services should be considered crucial infrastructure, especially during disasters. Raising low-level power equipment to higher ground or, better yet, encasing power lines underground helps to weatherproof such services and protects unsuspecting pedestrians from fatal shocks as well. Transmission towers and grid systems across the country require updated construction material according to contemporary climate data and regular maintenance to ensure sustained services.

Pakistan’s mountainous regions are increasingly prone to landslides and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) due to melting glaciers and erratic rainfall patterns. Early warning systems consisting of live data updates, community-based disaster risk management for awareness and evacuation, and the construction of protective infrastructure such as retaining walls and flood barriers are essential to mitigate these risks.

Investment into such programmes cannot be overstated, especially those at the community level. The GoP must enforce stricter regulations on deforestation and land use in vulnerable areas to prevent soil erosion and destabilisation. As mangroves are to the sea, the forests of the north are to the mountainous areas of the country that are most at risk of landslides and flooding.

Although Pakistan is exceptionally vulnerable due to its context, it is not the only country to face flooding as a risk. Countries like the Netherlands (known for their advanced flood management systems) and Japan (with their efficient storm water tunnels) offer valuable lessons in urban flood mitigation. Learning from best practices and adapting these strategies to Pakistan’s context can yield significant and immediate benefits.

Data and Coordination

A key aspect of climate-resilient infrastructure is accurate data and the coordination of resources according to that data. Effective disaster management and resilient infrastructure rely on a diverse range of data to inform planning, design and implementation. Climate and weather data (historical records, real-time monitoring and future projections) provide the foundation for understanding risks like rising temperatures, sea levels and extreme rainfall. This data is then complemented by geospatial information, including GIS maps and satellite imagery, which offer detailed insights into terrain, land use and vulnerability to hazards like flooding or landslides. Together, these tools are indispensable in visualising risks and opportunities, ensuring infrastructure is both sustainable and adaptive to environmental challenges.

Environmental data, such as air and water quality measurements, plays a crucial role in designing healthy and resilient cities. Monitoring pollutants like PM2.5 or NO2 helps address public health risks, while data on groundwater levels and soil conditions informs water management and construction practices. Additionally, urban and demographic data (population density, land use patterns, and socioeconomic indicators) will ensure that infrastructure investments are prioritised in high-risk areas and benefit vulnerable communities. A human-centred approach, enriched by social and behavioural data such as community feedback and health metrics, helps pinpoint local needs and evaluate the effects of climate change, including heatstroke and respiratory illnesses. In this context, the Greater Karachi Master Plan for 2047 is currently being developed based on inaccurate or incomplete population data and without public participation. This poses the risk of flawed planning for Karachi.

To build infrastructure that can withstand disasters, hazard maps and historical disaster records identify areas prone to floods, earthquakes, or cyclones, while early warning systems powered by real-time sensor data enable proactive responses. Ecological data, such as biodiversity records and forest health metrics, supports the integration of nature-based solutions like wetlands and urban forests. Meanwhile, economic and financial data ensure the viability of projects, guiding investments through cost-benefit analyses and identifying funding sources like climate finance or green bonds.

Crucially, effective disaster preparation requires strong coordination of governmental resources at the federal, provincial and local levels. Data must be shared across agencies to ensure timely and efficient responses to climate risks. For instance, real-time weather data should inform emergency services, while urban planning data must align with environmental and economic priorities. Without such coordination, even the most accurate data is at risk of being underutilised, leading to fragmented efforts and missed opportunities for resilience. A unified approach, supported by transparent governance and inter-agency collaboration, is essential to translate data into actionable strategies that protect communities and infrastructure.

Finally, innovation and technology data drive progress in climate resilience. Insights from pilot projects and smart technologies optimise infrastructure performance, ensuring cities are not only resilient but also adaptive to future challenges. By integrating these diverse data sources and fostering coordinated governance, Pakistan can design infrastructure that is sustainable, equitable and ready to face the uncertainties of a changing climate.

Sana R. Gondal is Associate Researcher, Karachi Urban Lab.